English vs. Le Francais

L'adverbe

2010-04-26T20:39:00.001+03:00

Définition

L’adverbe apporte une information supplémentaire au sens :

d’un verbe : Il mange beaucoup.
d’un adjectif : Il est très grand.
d’un autre adverbe : Il boit très lentement.
d’une phrase tout entière : Naturellement, il se lave tous les jours.

L’adverbe est invariable

Contrairement à l’adjectif, l’adverbe est invariable : Il parle à voix basse. [adjectif] / Elle parle bas. [adverbe]
Mais pas toujours :

Tout s’accorde avec l’adjectif lorsqu’il est employé devant un adjectif féminin qui commence par une consonne ou par un h aspiré :

Ses dents sont toutes blanches.
Ces jeunes filles sont toutes heureuses d’avoir les dents blanches.

Remarques

· Tout a ici le ses de « entièrement », « tout à fait », « très ».

· Une phrase du type Ces jeunes filles sont toutes petites est ambiguë : veut-on dire que toutes ces jeunes filles sont petites ou qu’elles sont très petites ?

· Devant un adjectif féminin qui commence par une voyelle, tout reste invariable : La France tout entière enviait les dents blanches de ces jeunes filles.

L’adverbe dépend d’un autre élément de la phrase.
L’adverbe est généralement facultatif.
Définition négative : l’adverbe n’est ni une préposition ni une conjonction ni une interjection.

Formation des adverbes

Certains adverbes sont formés à partir du latin : bien, en, hier, là, loin, mal, mieux, où, plus, quand, tant, tard, tôt, très, mais. [bene, inde, heri, illac, longe, male, melius, ubi, plus, quando, tantum, tarde, tostum, trans, magis]
Certains adverbes ont été formés à l’époque romane par juxtaposition de particules latines (préposition + adverbe) : avant, derrière, jamais, assez, arrière, dans, demain, etc. [ab + ante, de + retro, jam + magis, ad + satis, ad + retro, de + intus, de + mane, etc.]
Les adverbes en -ment : (latin mens, mentis : « esprit », « manière ») ces adverbes sont formés par l’adjonction du suffixe -ment au féminin des adjectifs (dérivation). Exemples :long › longue › longuement.

Remarques

· En ancien français, des adjectifs étaient épicènes. Exemple : prudent › prudemment (et non prudentement).

· Il existe des adverbes en -ment qui n’ont pas été formés à partir d’adjectifs. Exemples : adverbe quasi › quasiment, nom bougre › bougrement, nom diable › diablement, etc.

· Certains adjectifs récusent l’adverbialisation en -ment : démocrate, économe, etc. (maisdémocratique › démocratiquement, économique › économiquement). Cela peut s’expliquer par le fait que les adjectifs démocrate / économe caractérisent des individus (cette caractéristique est réputée permanente). À l’inverse, les adjectifs démocratique / économique s’appliquent à de l’inanimé.

· Sauf vert, les adjectifs de couleur ne s’adverbialisent pas. Dans Ces jeunes filles ont été vertement critiquées, l’idée de couleur est absente de vertement (qui signifie « avec vivacité, rudesse »). On trouve une entrée « noirement » dans le Grand Robert mais ce dictionnaire indique à « noir, e » : « Noir, à proprement parler, ne désigne pas une couleur mais on dit couramment : la couleur noire. » De toute façon, le T.L.F.I. signale noirementcomme hapax.

· Enfin, la catégorie des adverbes en -ment est très productive.

Les adverbes formés par dérivation impropre (changement de classe grammaticale ; ici, adjectif › adverbe) : ces adjectifs adverbialisés deviennent invariables. Exemples : elle parlehaut, elle s’habille court, elles ont ri jaune, ils votent utile, elles achètent français.
Les locutions adverbiales : elles résultent du figement de structures prépositionnelles. Exemples à, de, en + élément nominal ou adjectival : à l’inverse, à côté, à présent, de fait, de bric et de broc, en général, etc.
Les adverbes issus d’emprunts : in extenso, a posteriori, etc. (latin) ; jouer piano, colis envoyé franco de port, etc. (italien) ; j’en veux un chouïa, mais fissa parce que je dois y aller. (arabe) ; payer cash (anglais), etc.

Syntaxe

L’adverbe peut porter sur un constituant de la phrase. Les adverbes de constituant sont analysés selon la relation qu’ils entretiennent avec l’un des constituants de la phrase.

Il complète le verbe : Elle court rapidement.
Il complète l’adjectif : Elles est peu aimable.
Il complète l’adverbe : Elle court très vite.
Il complète le nom : C’est une fille bien.
Il complète la préposition : Elle vit juste (= précisément) dans cette maison.

L’adverbe peut porter sur la phrase tout entière. Les adverbes de phrase sont analysés par rapport à la phrase dans sa globalité.

Alors que l’adverbe de constituant est généralement placé après le verbe et avantl’adjectif et l’adverbe, la place de l’adverbe de phrase est plus libre.
Les adverbes compléments circonstanciels

De temps : Elle part demain. / Demain, elle part. (L’adverbe est mobile.)
De lieu : Ailleurs, la vie est meilleure. / La vie est meilleure ailleurs. (L’adverbe est déplaçable dans la phrase.)

Les adverbes non intégrés à la phrase

Les adverbes marqueurs d’une modalité.

Des adverbes peuvent rendre compte de l’appréciation du locuteur sur l’énoncé : Heureusement, elle est venue au rendez-vous. / Elle viendra peut-être à la piscine avec moi.
Des adverbes peuvent rendre compte de la façon dont le locuteur envisage son énonciation (acte de parole) : Franchement, je pense qu’elle ne viendra pas. (= pour te / vous parler franchement)

Remarque

· Les adverbes d’énonciation ne portent pas sur le dit mais sur le dire. Ainsi, les phrases Alfred travaille bizarrement [1] et Bizarrement, Alfred travaille.[2] ne sont pas équivalentes. Dans la phrase [1], l’adverbe modifie travaille : l’adverbe porte sur le dit car il dit comment Alfred travaille (adverbe de constituant). Dans la phrase [2], l’adverbe porte sur le dire : il s’agit d’un commentaire sur Alfred travaille (adverbe de phrase). Lors de la transformation négative (Alfred ne travaille pas bizarrement.[1] / Bizarrement, Alfred ne travaille pas. [2]), on remarque que l’adverbe ne porte pas sur le verbe dans la phrase [2] puisqu’il n’est pas nié.

Les adverbes de liaison

Dans l’organisation logique du discours : ainsi, effectivement, etc.

Voir aussi : les liens logiques.

Dans l’organisation chronologique du discours : premièrement, deuxièmement, puis, ensuite, etc.

Les adverbes formant une proposition ou une phrase : oui, non, si. Exemples : Viendrez-vous ? Non. (Adverbe de négation) Viendras-tu à la piscine avec moi ? Oui. (Adverbe d’affirmation) Vous n’êtes pas heureuse avec moi ? Si. (Adverbe qui contredit la négation)
Les adverbes interrogatifs et exclamatifs : combien, comme, comment, quand, où, pourquoi,etc.

Exemples : Où vas-tu ? À la piscine. / Comme je suis content !

Les degrés de l’adverbe

Degré de comparaison	Comparatif	Elle est plus / aussi /moins grande que moi.
Degré de comparaison	Superlatif	C’est elle qui est la plus /la moins heureuse de nous deux.
Degré d’intensité	Haut degré	Elle est très / extrêmement heureuse.
	Moyen degré	Elle est assez / moyennement heureuse.
	Bas degré	Elle est peu causante.

Le participe passé

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1. Les formes du participe:

Le participe passé semble un adjectif. Il peut fonctionner tel quel ou il peut faire partie du passé composée ou de la forme passive du verbe.

*-er*	-é	-és	trouver	trouvé(e)(s)
			garer	garé(e)(s)
	-ée	-ées	jouer	joué(e)(s)
			manger	mangé(e)(s)
*-ir*	-i	-is	dormir	dormi(e)(s)
			finir	fini(e)(s)
	-ie	-ies	sortir	sorti(e)(s)
			choisir	choisi(e)(s)

2. Les participes irréguliers:

Avoir	eu	Lire	lu
Attendre	attendu	Mettre	mis
Conduire	conduit	Naître	né
Connaître	connu	Ouvrir	ouvert
Courir	couru	Pouvoir	pu
Croire	cru	Prendre	pris
Devoir	dû	Recevoir	reçu
Dire	dit	Venir	venu
Écrire	écrit	Vivre	vécu
Être	été	Vouloir	voulu
Faire	fait	Voir	vu
Falloir	fallut	Détruire	Détruit
Rendre	rendu

source

Pluriel des noms composés

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Les noms composés qui s’écrivent comme des noms simples forment leur pluriel suivant les règles communes:

Ex. : un gendarme – des gendarmes, un passeport – des passeports.

SAUF: madame – mesdames; mademoiselle - mesdemoiselles; un bonhomme – des bonshommes; un gentilhomme – des gentilshommes; un monsieur – des messieurs.

Les noms composés qui s’écrivent plusieurs mots, séparés ou non par un trait d’union, forment leur pluriel de manière différente, selon la nature des éléments qui les composent:

Nom composé	Formation du pluriel	Exceptions
Nom + Nom	Les deux noms prennent la marque du pluriel: des oiseaux-mouches	des timbres-poste des années-lumière des gardes-chasse
Nom + Preposition + Nom	Seul le premier nom prend la marque du pluriel: des arcs-en-ciel des pommes de terre	des bêtes à cones des chars à bancs des tête-à-tête des pot-au-feu
Adjectif + Nom Nom + Adjectif	Les deux noms prennent la marque du pluriel: des basses-cours des coffres-forts	Adjectif grand + nom féminin reste invariable: des grand-mères Adjectif *demi* + nom reste invariable: des demi-journées
Adjectif + Adjectif	Les deux adjectifs prennent la marque du pluriel: des sourds-muets
Verbe + Nom	Seul le nom prend la marque du pluriel: des tire-bouchons des tourne-disques	Ni le verbe ni le nom ne prennent pas la marque du pluriel: des abat-jour des perce-neige des porte-plume
Mot invariable + Nom	Seul le nom prend la marque du pluriel: des avant-scènes des non-lieux
Verbe + Verbe	Aucune marque de pluriel: des laissez-passer
Verbe + Adverbe	Aucune marque de pluriel: des couche-tôt
Mots étrangers	des snack-bars des pull-ouvers des week-ends	Aucune marque de pluriel: des post-scriptum

Le pluriel des noms

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Le plus souvent on forme le pluriel d’un nom en ajoutant -s au singulier

Ex.: une table – des tables, un garçon – des garcons

Cas particuliers

Singulier	Pluriel	Exceptions
-al un cheval	-aux des chevaux	un bal – chacal – festival – recital – carnival – régal - als (des bals, des festivals, etc.)
-ail un détail	-ails des détails	un bail – corail – émail – soupirail – travail – vantail – vitrail – aux (des baux, des travaux, etc.)
-au, -eau, -eu un noyau un drapeau un jeu	-aux, -eaux, -eux des noyaux des drapeaux des jeux	un landau – sarrau – bleu – pneu – aus, eus (des landaus, des bleus, etc.)
-ou un sou	-ous des sous	un bijou – caillou – genou – hibou – joujou – pou – oux (des bijoux, des cailloux, etc.)
-s, -x, -z un tapis un prix un nez	ne changent pas des tapis des prix des nez
Formes différentes		Un oeil – des yeux, un ciel – des cieux, un aїeul – des aїeux

Les noms propres prennent la marque du pluriel:

1. Quand ils désignent des familles royals ou princières, illustres dans l’histoire ou quand ils désignent des peoples: Les Bourbons, les Pharaon, les Césars, les Belges.

2. Quand ils désignent des oeuvres d’art par le nom des personages représentés: ]

Ex.: Rappelez-vous les oeuvres italiennes que je vous ai décrites tant de

Jupiters, d’Appolons, de Vénus et de Dianes.

3. Quand ils désignent plusieurs pays, provinces, cours d’eau, portent le même nom

Ex.: Les Amériques, les Russies, les Indes, les Florides.

Les noms propres ne prennent pas la marque du pluriel:

1. Quand ils désignent des familles entières:

Ex.: les Dupont, les Thibault, les Ichim.

Quand ils désignent des titres de revues, de de journaux, de livres, etc.

Ex.: en feuilletant des vieux Monde illustré.

Remarques:

Il y a des noms qui changent de sens en changeant de nombre:

Le ciseau (du menuisier) – les ciseaux (du couturier)

La lunette (de l’astronome) – les lunettes (du miope)

Certains noms n’existent qu’au singulier:

Le bétail, la botanique, la sculpture, etc.

Certains noms n’existent qu’au pluriel:

Les obsèquies, les moeurs, les environs, etc.

Le féminin des noms

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On forme le plus souvent le féminin en ajoutant un –e au masculin: le féminin reste identique au masculin:

Ex. Un camarade – une camarade; un artiste – une artiste.

Cas pariculiers

A. Noms ayant le même radical et une terminaison differente au M et au F

Masculin	Féminin	Exemples
-el	-elle	Gabriel – Gabrielle un colonel – une colonelle
-eau	-elle	un agneau – une agnelle un chameau – une chamelle
-en, -on	-enne, -onne	un parisien – une parisienne un lion – lionne
-et	-ette	un poulet – une poulette un cadet – une cadette
-an, -in, -ain	-ane, -ine, -aine	un partisan – une partisane un Americain – une Americaine Attention: un paysane – une paysanne
-at	-ate	un avocat – une avocate Attention: un chat – une chatte
-ot	-ote	un idiot – une idiote Attention: un sot – une sotte
-x	-se	un époux – une épouse un capricieux – une capricieuse
-p, -f	-ve	un loup – une louve un veuf – une veuve
-c	-que	un Turc - une Turque Frédéric – Frédérique Attention: un Grec – une Grecque
-x	-sse	un roux – rousse
-os	-osse	un gros – une grosse
Modification du suffixe:
-er, -ier	-ère, -ière	un berger – une bergère un ouvrier – une ouvrière
-eur	-euse	un vendeur – une vendeuse un menteur – une menteuse
-eur	-eresse	un chasseure – une chasseresse un pêcheur – une pêcheresse
-eur	-oresse	un docteur – une doctoresse
-teur	-trice	un dicteur - une dictrice Attention: un empereur – une emperatrice un chanteur – une cantatrice
-e	-esse	un prince – une princesse un comte – une comtesse un tigre – une tigresse un poète – une poètesse Attention: un duc – une duchesse

B. Le féminin marqué par un mot spécial:

soeur – frère; garçon – fille; mari – femme; seigneur – dame; oncle – tante; homme – femme; bouc – chèvre; serf – biche; singe – guenon; etc.

C. Le féminin marqué par un changement du determinatif:

un enfant – une enfant; une secrétaire – une secrétaire; etc.

D. Noms de personne qui n’ont qu’un genre:

un professeur, un écrivain, un auteur, un médecin, un juge, etc.

E. Noms qui changent de sens en changeant de genre:

Comparez: un vase (o vază) – une vase (nămol); un page (un paj) – une page (o pagină)

F. On ajoute d’autres suffixes: -ine: héros – héroїne; -ette: Yves – Yvette; -nne: Léon – Léonne

G. On cange certains suffixes: gouverneur – gouvernate; serviteur – servante; neveu – niece; compagnon – compagne; vieillard – vieille; speaker – speakerine; favori – favorite; roi – reine; copain – copine, etc.

L’accord du participe passé employé avec l’auxiliaire avoir

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Le participe passé employé avec avoir s’accorde avec le complément d’objet direct quand celui-ci est antéposé au verbe :

J’ai rencontré Véronique au restaurant. Le complément d’objet direct est postposé au verbe → le participe passé est invariable.
Je l’ai rencontrée. Le complément d’objet direct (l’) est antéposé au verbe → le participe passé s’accorde en genre et en nombre avec son complément d’objet direct (qui désigne Véronique).
Il y a donc également accord dans Ce sont les livres de grammaire que tu m’as demandés.

Cas particuliers :

Les verbes coûter, valoir, mesurer, vivre, régner, durer, etc. :
Les participes passés de ces verbes ne s’accordent pas lorsque des compléments (circonstanciels ou adverbiaux) indiquant la durée, la mesure et le prix les précèdent : J’ai bien fait de dépenser les huit euros que ce livre de grammaire m’a coûté.
Néanmoins, lorsque ces verbes sont employés transitivement, leur participe passé s’accorde avec le complément d’objet direct antéposé : Les efforts que ces lectures m’ont coûtés. (coûter a ici le sens de « Nécessiter la réalisation d’une chose difficile et/ou désagréable. ».

Les verbes impersonnels :

Le participe passé d’un verbe impersonnel est invariable : La patience qu’il m’a fallu pour lui faire apprendre par cœur le dictionnaire a été déterminante.
Le participe passé des verbes dire, devoir, croire, savoir, pouvoir, vouloir, etc. (verbes d’énonciation et d’opinion) :
Le participe passé de ces verbes est invariable lorsqu’ils ont pour COD :
un infinitif sous-entendu après le participe passé : J’ai fait tous les exercices de grammaire que j’ai pu (faire) → que est complément d’objet direct de l’infinitif faire sous-entendu.

Le participe passé suivi d’un verbe à l'infinitif :

À part fait + infinitif, quand le participe passé est suivi d’un infinitif, il s’accorde avec le complément d’objet direct qui précède lorsque l’objet ou la personne désignés par le COD sont à l’origine de l’action exprimée par l’infinitif : Les oiseaux que j’ai entendus chanter chantaient faux.
Le participe passé du verbe faire suivi d’un infinitif :
Fait suivi d’un infinitif est toujours invariable : Les livres de grammaire que je t’ai fait lire sont très utiles.
Le pronom en complément d’objet direct + participe passé :
Le pronom en COD suivi d’un participe passé est invariable : Et des livres comme ceux-la, j’en ai lu bien souvent !

sursa

Future

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Other ways of talking about the future

1. Is to + Infinitive

Form

This form is composed of two elements: the appropriate form of the verb to be + to (am to, are to, is to), and the infinitive of the main verb without 'to'..

Subject	to be to	infinitive without to
We	are to	leave

Affirmative
She	is to	travel
Negative
You	are not (aren't) to	travel
Interrogative
Am	I to	travel?
Interrogative negative
Aren't	they to	travel?

Function

This form refers to an obligation to do something at a time later than now. It is similar to 'must', but there is a suggestion that something has been arranged or organised for us. It is not normally used in spoken English, but might be found in spy stories, e.g.

"You are to leave this room at once, and you are to travel by train to London. In London you are to pick up your ticket from Mr Smith, and you are to fly to your destination alone. When you arrive, you are to meet our agent, Mr X, who will give you further information. You are to destroy this message now."

2. Be + about to + Infinitive

Form

This form is composed of three elements : the appropriate form of the verb to be, present tense, + 'about to' + the infinitive of the main verb without 'to':

Subject	be	about to	infinitive without to
I	am	about to	leave
She	is	about to	arrive

Function

This form refers to a time immediately after the moment of speaking, and emphasises that the event or action will happen very soon:

Examples

She is about to leave.
You are about to see something very unusual.
I am about to go to a meeting - can I talk to you later?

It is often used with the word 'just', which emphasises the immediacy of the action:

We are just about to go to sleep.
Sally is just about to take an exam.

This form can also be used in the simple past tense to refer to an action that was imminent, but was interrupted. In such cases it is often followed by a 'when - clause':

She was about to leave when he arrived.
I was just about to telephone her when she walked into the house.

Future Perfect Continuous

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Form

This form is composed of two elements: the future perfect of the verb to be (will have been) + the present participle of the main verb (base+ing):

Subject	will have been	base+ing
We	will have been	living

Affirmative
I	will have been	working
Negative
I	won't have been	working
Interrogative
Will	I have been	working?
Interrogative negative
Won't	I have been	working?

Example: to live

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I'll have been living	I won't have been living	Will I have been living?
You'll have been living	You won't have been living	Will you have been living?
He'll have been living	He won't have been living	Will she have been living?
We'll have been living	We won't have been living	Will we have been living?
You'll have been living	You won't have been living	Will you have been living?
They'll have been living	They won't have been living	Will they have been living?

Function

Like the future perfect simple, this form is used to project ourselves forward in time and to look back. It refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time, that may be unfinished.

Examples:

I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock.
By 2001 I will have been living here for sixteen years.
By the time I finish this course, I will have been learning English for twenty years.
Next year I will have been working here for four years.

Future Perfect

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Form

The future perfect is composed of two elements: the simple future of the verb to have (will have) + the past participle of the main verb:

Subject	will have	past participle
He	will have	finished

Affirmative
I will have left
Negative
They won't have gone
Interrogative
Will we have seen?
Interrogative negative
Won't he have arrived?

Example: to arrive

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I'll have arrived	I won't have arrived	Will I have arrived?
You'll have arrived	You won't have arrived	Will you have arrived?
He'll have arrived	She won't have arrived	Will it have arrived?
We'll have arrived	We won't have arrived	Will we have arrived?
You'll have arrived	You won't have arrived	Will you have arrived?
They'll have arrived	They won't have arrived	Will they have arrived?

Function

The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed some time later than now.
It is often used with a time expression using by + a point in future time.

Examples

I'll have been here for six months on June 23rd.
By the time you read this I'll have left.
You will have finished your work by this time next week.

Future continuous

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Form

The future continuous is made up of two elements: the simple future of the verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing)

Subject	*simple future, 'to be'*	base+ing
You	will be	watching

Affirmative
I will be asking
Negative
She won't be leaving
Interrogative
Will they be retiring?
Interrogative negative
Won't we be staying?

Example: to stay

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I will be staying	I won't be staying	Will I be staying?
You will be staying	You won't be staying	Will you be staying?
He, she, it will be staying	He won't be staying	Will she be staying?
We will be staying	We won't be staying	Will we be staying?
You will be staying	You won't be staying	Will you be staying?
They will be staying	They won't be staying	Will they be staying?

Function

The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later than now. It is used:
To project ourselves into the future and see something happening:

This time next week I will be sun-bathing in Bali.

To refer to actions/events that will happen in the normal course of events:

I'll be seeing Jim at the conference next week.

In the interrogative form, especially with 'you', to distinguish between a simple request for information and an invitation:

Will you be coming to the party tonight? (= request for information)
Will you come to the party? (= invitation)

To predict or guess about someone's actions or feelings, now or in the future:

You'll be feeling tired after that long walk, I expect.

Events in progress in the future:

When you are in Australia will you be staying with friends?
This time next week you will be working in your new job.
At four thirty on Tuesday afternoon I will be signing the contract.

Events/actions in normal course of events:

I'll be going into town this afternoon, is there anything you want from the shops?
Will you be using the car tomorrow? - No, you can take it.
I'll be seeing Jane this evening - I'll give her the message.

Asking for information:

Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight?
Will Jim be coming with us?

Predicting or guessing:

You'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.
He'll be coming to the meeting, I expect.
You'll be missing the sunshine now you're back in England.

Future with Going to

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Form

This form is composed of three elements: the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + going to + the infinitive of the main verb:

Subject	'to be'	going to	infinitive
She	is	going to	leave

Function

The use of 'going to' to refer to future events suggests a very strong association with the present. The time is not important - it is later than now, but the attitude is that the event depends on a present situation, that we know about. So it is used:

to refer to our plans and intentions:
We're going to move to London next year. (= the plan is in our minds now.)
to make predictions based on present evidence:
Look at those clouds - it's going to pour with rain! (= It's clear from what I can see now.)

Note: In everyday speech, 'going to' is often shortened to 'gonna', especially in American English.

Plans and intentions:

Is Freddy going to buy a new car soon?
Are John and Pam going to visit Milan when they are in Italy?
I think Nigel and Mary are going to have a party next week.

Predictions based on present evidence:

There's going to be a terrible accident!
He's going to be a brilliant politician.
I'm going to have terrible indigestion.

NOTE: It is unusual to say 'I'm going to go to...'
Instead, we use 'going to' + a place or event:

Examples

We are going to the beach tomorrow.
She is going to the ballet tonight.
Are you going to the party tomorrow night?

Simple Present for Future Events

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Form

See Simple Present section.

Function

The simple present is used to make statements about events at a time later than now, when the statements are based on present facts, and when these facts are something fixed like a time-table, schedule, calendar.

Examples

The plane arrives at 18.00 tomorrow.
She has a yoga class tomorrow morning.
The restaurant opens at 19.30 tonight.
Next Thursday at 14.00 there is an English exam.

Note the difference between:

The plane leaves in ten minutes (= statement of fact)
The plane's going to leave in ten minutes (= prediction based on present situation, meaning "...and if you don't hurry up you're going to miss it!")

Present Continuous for future events

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Form

See notes on form in section on Present Continuous.

Subject	+ *to be*	+ base-*ing*
She	is	meeting

Function

The present continuous is used to talk about arrangements for events at a time later than now.
There is a suggestion that more than one person is aware of the event, and that some preparation has already happened. e.g.

I'm meeting Jim at the airport = and both Jim and I have discussed this.
I am leaving tomorrow. = and I've already bought my train ticket.
We're having a staff meeting next Monday = and all members of staff have been told about it.

More examples

Is she seeing him tomorrow?
He isn't working next week.
They aren't leaving until the end of next year.
We are staying with friends when we get to Boston.

Note: in example (a), seeing is used in a continuous form because it means meeting.

BE CAREFUL! The simple present is used when a future event is part of a programme or time-table. Notice the difference between:

a. We're having a staff meeting next Monday.
b. We have a staff meeting next Monday.(= we have a meeting every Monday, it's on the time-table.)

Simple future

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Form

The 'simple' future is composed of two parts: will / shall + the infinitive without 'to'

Subject	will	infinitive without to
He	will	leave...

Affirmative
I	will	go
I	shall	go
Negative
They	will not	see
They	won't	see
Interrogative
Will	she	ask?
Interrogative negative
Won't	she	take?

Contractions
I will *I'll*	We will *we'll*
You will *you'll*	You will *you'll*
He,she, will *he'll, she'll*	They will *they'll*

NOTE: The form 'it will' is not normally shortened.

Example: to see

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I'll see	I won't see	Will I see?
*I will / shall see	I shan't see	Shall I see?
You'll see	You won't see	Will you see?
He, she, it will see	He won't see	Will she see?
We'll see	We won't see	Will we see?
*We will / shall see	We shan't see	Shall we see?
You will see	You won't see	Will you see?
They'll see	They won't see	Will they see?

*NOTE: shall is slightly dated but can be used instead of will with I or we.

Function

The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty. In this case there is no 'attitude'.
The simple future is used:

to predict a future event:
It will rain tomorrow.
(with I/we) to express a spontaneous decision:
I'll pay for the tickets by credit card.
to express willingness:
I'll do the washing-up. He'll carry your bag for you.
(in the negative form) to express unwillingness:
The baby won't eat his soup.
I won't leave until I've seen the manager!
(with I in the interrogative form) to make an offer:
Shall I open the window?
(with we in the interrogative form) to make a suggestion:
Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
(with I in the interrogative form) to ask for advice or instructions:
What shall I tell the boss about this money?
(with you) to give orders:
You will do exactly as I say.
(with you) to give an invitation:
Will you come to the dance with me? Will you marry me?

NOTE: In modern English will is preferred to shall.

Shall is mainly used with I and we to make an offer or suggestion (see examples (e) and (f) above, or to ask for advice (example (g) above).
With the other persons (you, he, she, they) shall is only used in literary or poetic situations, e.g.

"With rings on her fingers and bells on her toes, She shall have music wherever she goes."

Past Perfect Continuous

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Form

The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect of the verb to be (=had been) + the present participle (base+ing).

Examples

Subject	had been	verb-ing
I	had been	walking

Affirmative
She	had been	trying
Negative
We	hadn't been	sleeping
Interrogative
Had you	been	eating
Interrogative negative
Hadn't they	been	living

Example: to buy

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I had been buying	I hadn't been buying	Had I been buying?
You had been buying	You hadn't been buying	Had you been buying
He,she,it had been buying	He hadn't been buying	Had she been buying?
We had been buying	We hadn't been buying	Had we been buying?
You had been buying	You hadn't been buying	Had you been buying
They had been buying	They hadn't been buying	Had they been buying

Function

The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with reference to a time earlier than 'before now'. Again, we are more interested in the process.

Examples

Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?
We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key.
It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.
Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in.

This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past continuous and the present perfect continuous in direct speech:

Jane said "I have been gardening all afternoon." Jane said she had been gardening all afternoon.
When the police questioned him, John said "I was working late in the office that night." When the police questioned him, John told them he had been working late in the office that night.

Past perfect

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Form

The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the past participle of the main verb.

Subject	had	past participle
We	had	decided...
Affirmative
She	had	given.
Negative
We	hadn't	asked.
Interrogative
Had	they	arrived?
Interrogative negative
Hadn't	you	finished?

Example: to decide

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I had decided	I hadn't decided	Had I decided?
You had decided	You hadn't decided	Had you decided?
He, she, it had decided	He hadn't decided	Had she decided?
We had decided	We hadn't decided	Had we decided?
You had decided	You hadn't decided	Had you decided?
They had decided	They hadn't decided	Had they decided?

Function

The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first.
In these examples, Event A is the first or earliest event, Event B is the second or latest event:

Event B Event B

a.	John *had gone* out	when I arrived in the office.
a.	Event A	Event B
b.	I *had saved* my document	before the computer crashed.
b.	Event A
c.	When they arrived	we *had already started* cooking
c.	Event B	Event A
d.	He was very tired	because he *hadn't slept* well.
d.	Event B	Event A

Past perfect + just

'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now, e.g.

The train had just left when I arrived at the station.
She had just left the room when the police arrived.
I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.

Simple Past

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BE CAREFUL!
The simple past in English may look like a tense in your own language, but the meaning may be different.

Form

Regular verbs: base+ed
e.g. walked, showed, watched, played, smiled, stopped

Irregular verbs: see the list of verbes

Subject	Verb
Subject	Be	Have	Do
I	was	had	did
You	were	had	did
He, she, it	was	had	did
We	were	had	did
You	were	had	did
They	were	had	did

Affirmative

I was in Japan last year
She had a headache yesterday.
We did our homework last night.

Negative and interrogative

Note:
For the negative and interrogative simple past form of "do" as an ordinary verb, use the auxiliary "do", e.g. We didn't do our homework last night. The negative of "have" in the simple past is usually formed using the auxiliary "do", but sometimes by simply adding not or the contraction "n't".
The interrogative form of "have" in the simple past normally uses the auxiliary "do".

They weren't in Rio last summer.
We hadn't any money.
We didn't have time to visit the Eiffel Tower.
We didn't do our exercises this morning.
Were they in Iceland last January?
Did you have a bicycle when you were a boy?
Did you do much climbing in Switzerland?

Simple past, regular verbs

Affirmative
Subject	verb + ed
I	washed
Negative
Subject	did not	infinitive without to
They	didn't	visit ...
Interrogative
Did	subject	infinitive without to
Did	she	arrive...?
Interrogative negative
Did not	subject	infinitive without to
Didn't	you	like..?

Example: to walk

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I walked	I didn't walk	Did I walk?
You walked	You didn't walk	Did you walk?
He,she,it walked	He didn't walk	Did he walk?
We walked	We didn't walk	Did we walk?
You walked	You didn't walk	Did you walk?
They walked	They didn't walk	Did they walk?

Note: For the negative and interrogative form of all verbs in the simple past, always use the auxiliary 'did''.

Examples: irregular verbs

to go

He went to a club last night.
Did he go to the cinema last night?
He didn't go to bed early last night.

to give

We gave her a doll for her birthday.
They didn't give John their new address.
Did Barry give you my passport?

to come

My parents came to visit me last July.
We didn't come because it was raining.
Did he come to your party last week?

Function

The simple past is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now. Duration is not important. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past.

John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.
My father died last year.
He lived in Fiji in 1976.
We crossed the Channel yesterday.

You always use the simple past when you say when something happened, so it is associated with certain past time expressions

Examples

frequency:
often, sometimes, always;
a definite point in time:
last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six weeks ago.
an indefinite point in time:
the other day, ages ago, a long time ago etc.

Note: the word ago is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past. It is placed after the period of time e.g. a week ago, three years ago, a minute ago.

Examples

Yesterday, I arrived in Geneva.
She finished her work at seven o'clock.
We saw a good film last week.
I went to the theatre last night.
She played the piano when she was a child.
He sent me a letter six months ago.
Peter left five minutes ago.

Past continuous

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Form

The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts : the past tense of the verb to be (was/were), and the base of the main verb +ing.

Subject	was/were	base-ing
They	were	watching

Affirmative
She	was	reading
Negative
She	wasn't	reading
Interrogative
Was	she	reading?
Interrogative negative
Wasn't	she	reading?

Example: to play

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I was playing	I was not playing	Was I playing?
You were playing	You were not playing	Were you playing?
He, she, it was playing	She wasn't playing	Was she playing?
We were playing	We weren't playing	Were we playing?
You were playing	You weren't playing	Were you playing?
They were playing	They weren't playing	Were they playing?

Function

The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and was still going on at the time of speaking. In other words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the past.

It is used:

often, to describe the background in a story written in the past tense, e.g. "The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. The other animals were relaxing in the shade of the trees, but the elephant moved very quickly. She was looking for her baby, and she didn't notice the hunter who was watching her through his binoculars. When the shot rang out, she was running towards the river..."
to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action: "I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."
to express a change of mind: e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided to go on an excursion instead."
with 'wonder', to make a very polite request: e.g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit for me tonight."

More examples

They were waiting for the bus when the accident happened.
Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg.
When we arrived he was having a bath.
When the fire started I was watching television.

Note: with verbs not normally used in the continuous form, the simple past is used. See the list in Present Continuous.

source

Past continuous

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Past continuous - form

The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts : the past tense of the verb to be (was/were), and the base of the main verb +ing.

Subject	was/were	base-ing
They	were	watching

Affirmative
She	was	reading
Negative
She	wasn't	reading
Interrogative
Was	she	reading?
Interrogative negative
Wasn't	she	reading?

Example: to play, past continuous

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I was playing	I was not playing	Was I playing?
You were playing	You were not playing	Were you playing?
He, she, it was playing	She wasn't playing	Was she playing?
We were playing	We weren't playing	Were we playing?
You were playing	You weren't playing	Were you playing?
They were playing	They weren't playing	Were they playing?

Past continuous, function

often, to describe the background in a story written in the past tense, e.g. "The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. The other animals were relaxing in the shade of the trees, but the elephant moved very quickly. She was looking for her baby, and she didn't notice the hunter who was watching her through his binoculars. When the shot rang out, she was running towards the river..."
to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action: "I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."
to express a change of mind: e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided to go on an excursion instead."
with 'wonder', to make a very polite request: e.g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit for me tonight."

More examples

They were waiting for the bus when the accident happened.
Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg.
When we arrived he was having a bath.
When the fire started I was watching television.

Note: with verbs not normally used in the continuous form, the simple past is used. See the list in Present Continuous.

source

Present Perfect Continuous

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Form

The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements:

the present perfect of the verb 'to be' (have/has been), and
the present participle of the main verb (base+ing).

Subject	has/have been	base+ing
She	has been	swimming

Affirmative
She has been / She's been	running
Negative
She hasn't been	running
Interrogative
Has she been	running?
Interrogative negative
Hasn't she been	running?

Example: to live

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I have been living	I haven't been living	Have I been living?
You have been living	You haven't been living	Have you been living?
He, she, it has been living	He hasn't been living	Has she been living?
We have been living	We haven't been living	Have we been living?
You have been living	You haven't been living	Have you been living?
They have been living	They haven't been living	Have they been living?

Function

The present perfect continuous refers to an unspecified time between 'before now' and 'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still be going on, or may have just finished.

Examples

1. Actions that started in the past and continue in the present.

She has been waiting for you all day (=and she's still waiting now).
I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (=and I still haven't finished it).
They have been travelling since last October (=and they're not home yet).

2. Actions that have just finished, but we are interested in the results:

She has been cooking since last night (=and the food on the table looks delicious).
It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet).
Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).

Verbs without continuous forms

With verbs not normally used in the continuous form, use the present perfect simple. See list of these verbs under 'Present Continuous':

I've wanted to visit China for years.
She's known Robert since she was a child.
I've hated that music since I first heard it.
I've heard a lot about you recently.
We've understood everything we've heard this morning.

source